Table 4 Multiple Linear Regression analysis results of significant washback variability

(1) The use of SpeechRater in TOEFL iBT Speaking test has motivated me to learn English pronunciation

− 0.082^*

(− 2.288)

0.040

(2) The use of SpeechRater in TOEFL iBT Speaking test has motivated me to learn English intonation

− 0.145^***

(− 3.975)

0.100

(4) The use of SpeechRater in TOEFL iBT Speaking test has motivated me to learn English grammar

− 0.102^**

(− 2.727)

0.068

(17) As TOEFL iBT Speaking test is automatically-scored, before the test it has been helpful for me to recite some templates

− 0.099^*

(− 2.515)

0.073

(24) As TOEFL iBT Speaking test is automatically-scored, before the test it has been helpful for me to enrol in commercial courses on the test preparation for TOEFL iBT Speaking

− 0.110^**

(− 2.728)

0.050

(28) As TOEFL iBT Speaking test is automatically-scored, through preparation for TOEFL iBT Speaking test, I improved my oral English proficiency

− 0.136^***

(− 3.672)

0.094

(29) As TOEFL iBT Speaking test is automatically-scored, through preparation for TOEFL iBT Speaking test, I was impeded in terms of my normal spoken English learning activities

0.109^*

(2.426)

0.046

(5) The use of SpeechRater in TOEFL iBT Speaking test has motivated me to learn English cohesive devices

0.151^*

(2.062)

0.045

(7) The use of SpeechRater in TOEFL iBT Speaking test has made me spend more time on spoken English learning and practice

0.202^**

(2.741)

0.059

(8) The use of SpeechRater in TOEFL iBT Speaking test has motivated me to learn with audio/video English materials

0.230^**

(2.823)

0.070

(9) The use of SpeechRater in TOEFL iBT Speaking test has motivated me to take part in off-class spoken English communication activities

0.273^**

(3.463)

0.094

(10) The use of SpeechRater in TOEFL iBT Speaking test has motivated me to speak more English in academic settings

0.220^**

(2.679)

0.098

(13) The use of SpeechRater in TOEFL iBT Speaking test has promoted my interest in spoken English learning

0.171^*

(2.031)

0.033

(14) The use of SpeechRater in TOEFL iBT Speaking test has helped me locate my deficiencies in spoken English learning

0.296^***

(3.711)

0.097

(15) The use of SpeechRater in TOEFL iBT Speaking test has set clear spoken English learning goals for me

0.241^**

(3.055)

0.078