Challenges and opportunities for spoken English learning and instruction brought by automated speech scoring in large-scale speaking tests: a mixed-method investigation into the washback of SpeechRater in TOEFL iBT

Table 2 Illustration of what each rank in a five-point Likert scale represented

	1 (strongly disagree)	2 (disagree)	3 (neutral)	4 (agree)	5 (strongly agree)
The use of SpeechRater in TOEFL iBT Speaking test has promoted my interest in spoken English learning	Intense negative washback	Negative washback	Neutral	Positive washback	Intense positive washback
The use of SpeechRater in TOEFL iBT Speaking test has brought me pressure in spoken English learning	Intense positive washback	Positive washback	Neutral	Negative washback	Intense negative washback