Table 1 Byram’s (1989) framework of cultural content in textbooks

1. Social identity and social groups (social class, regional identity, ethnic minorities)

2. Social interaction (differing levels of formality, as outsider and insider)

3. Belief and behaviour (moral, religious beliefs, daily routines)

4. Social and political institutions (state institutions, health care, law and order, social security, local government)

5. Socialization and the life cycle (families, schools, employment, rites of passage)

6. National history (historical and contemporary events seen as markers of national identity)

7. National geography (geographic factors seen as being significant by members)

8. Stereotypes and national identity (what is ‘typical’, symbols of national stereotypes)