Table 5 The Ehrman and Leaver Learning Style Questionnaire (Ehrman & Leaver, 2002)

field independent

field dependent

1

I don’t usually get much from the context unless I pay close attention to what I’m doing.

When I work with new language in context, in stories or articles or at sentences; I often pick up new words, ideas, etc., that way, without planning in advance.

2

I usually have to undertake focused study before I learn new words or phrases. I wouldn’t describe myself as someone who learns by ‘osmosis.’

I often find that I have picked up new words, phrases, and so on without realizing it.

3

I don’t like to have to learn from just conversations, informal language use, or readings for native speakers that I haven’t been prepared for.

I learn best from language that is in meaningful context like stories and conversations.

field sensitive

field insensitive

1

When working with new material with additional subject matter around it, I comfortably find and use what is most important.

When there is a lot of information that comes with what I need to learn, it’s hard to tell what’s most important. It all seems to fall together sometimes, and it’s hard work to sort things out.

2

I like out-of-context material like grammar rules.

Grammar rules and pieces of language that are out of context are hard for me to work with.

3

When faced with new language, I reconceptualize it so that it makes sense in my own terms.

I accept what is presented to me and take it pretty much as presented.

leveling

sharpening

1

I like to reduce differences and look for similarities.

I like to explore differences and disparities among things.

2

I notice mostly how things are similar.

I quickly notice differences, even fairly fine distinctions.

3

I tend not to remember small distinctions, such as those between similar-seeming words or symbols.

I have a good memory for fine distinctions such as those between similar-seeming words or symbols.

global

particular

1

I tend to be most aware of the ‘big picture;’

I notice specifics and details quickly.

2

I notice the ‘forest’ before the ‘trees.’

I tend to be aware of the ‘trees’ before the ‘forest.’

3

I start with the main points and work down to the details.

I begin with the details to work up to the main points.

impulsive

reflective

1

I react quickly.

I take my time to react.

2

I don’t have to spend much time preparing for something; instead, I start off working immediately.

Before starting anything, I want time to orient myself to it.

3

I often act or speak without thinking about it.

I tend to think about things before I do or say them.

synthetic

analytic

1

I understand best by assembling what I’m learning into a whole.

I understand best by disassembly of what I’m learning into its component parts.

2

I often make up new words or sentences using language I already know.

I seek to understand the system that is behind words and sentences by pulling them apart in my mind.

3

I sometimes make up new ways to say things.

I prefer figuring out how words and sentences are put together.

analogue

digital

1

I tend to learn things through metaphors.

I like it when people say what they mean directly.

2

I prefer to learn by using lots of associations.

I prefer to use rehearsal and repetition.

3

It helps to understand the meanings behind the actual words.

It’s usually okay to take what I’m learning at face value.

concrete

abstract

1

To learn, I like to interact with the world.

I like to learn through concepts and ideas.

2

I like to learn through applying knowledge and theory.

I like to learn through descriptions and grammars that formally represent knowledge.

3

I like learning when I can touch, see, or hear.

I prefer to learn abstractly through theories.

random

sequential

1

I learn best when I can work out for myself the best sequence to use, even if it’s different from the one in the book or lesson.

I learn best when there is a sequence of steps provided, so I can do things in order.

2

Too much emphasis on a curriculum or textbook can get in the way of my learning.

Organized textbooks and lesson plans really help me.

3

It doesn’t matter if the material I’m learning isn’t very organized; I can find a way to use it.

It’s important to go step-by-step as I learn.

inductive

deductive

1

When I learn, I mostly start with examples or my experience and make generalizations or rules.

When I learn, I mostly start with rules and generalizations and apply them to my experience to learn.

2

I like to figure out grammar rules for myself.

I prefer to get the grammar rules from the teacher or a book.

3

When learning, I make guesses and then seek evidence to confirm or modify my ideas.

When learning, I would rather learn what I need to know directly, without fumbling around.